F
Farming
After settling in Canaan farming became the major occupation of the Israelites. Perhaps unsurprisingly, major religious festivals were associated with the land’s annual cycle of sowing and harvesting.
According to Exodus, (Ex. 23:14-17; 34:18-23), the year began in the spring, in the month of Nisan, (March or April), During this month Passover was celebrated. Fifty days later the Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost, occurred when the wheat harvest began. The Feast of Tabernacles, or Ingathering, took place when the harvest was complete.
The growing of crops began with the preparation of the soil, usually in the middle of October. This was timed to take advantage of any early rain which softened the ground and made it easier to plough or dig. Sowing followed this preparation, which was, in time, followed by harrowing and weeding.
The harvesting of crops began with barley, toward the middle of April. The gathering of the other grains, and the harvest of summer fruits, including grapes, lasted through August and September, with the last of the olives picked in November.
Seed could either be sown by hand or using a seed drill. If sowing by hand the farmer walked along the furrows made by the hoe or plough, throwing handfuls of seed taken from a bag at his side. The furrows were then smoothed over by pulling branches over the ground to cover the seed, (Is. 28:24-5; Job 39:10). Using a seed drill required more than one person: one would direct the plough and push the handle down into the soil, while a second one would direct the animals. A third person would hold the seed bag and drop the seeds into the funnel which led down to the soil. Seeds would fall behind the plough-point, so were covered by the falling soil.
Harvesting was intense work, and itinerant workers were often hired to help. Harvesting began with cutting the standing grain with a scythe, tying the stalks into sheaves, and finally, transporting the harvested crops to the threshing area. The separation of the grain from the stalks was done on the hard, flat rock of the threshing floor in a process called winnowing. Threshing floors were placed so that the wind could help with the sorting. Winnowing involved throwing the sheaves into the air gently so that the heavy grain fell to the floor and the stalks, lighter and more likely to catch the wind, were ‘blown away’. After winnowing was completed, the farmer was left with several products: the grain itself and then two styles of straw – a thick straw use d for fire-starting (kindling) or binding into mud bricks, and a finer one used for animal feed. The finest dust was used as a packing material.
Religious law made sure that everyone benefitted from the growing of grain: a corner of the field could not be harvested by the landowner and had to be left for the poor (Leviticus 19:9, 23:22), who were also invited to collect any grain that the reapers (collectors) had missed.
After settling in Canaan farming became the major occupation of the Israelites. Perhaps unsurprisingly, major religious festivals were associated with the land’s annual cycle of sowing and harvesting.
According to Exodus, (Ex. 23:14-17; 34:18-23), the year began in the spring, in the month of Nisan, (March or April), During this month Passover was celebrated. Fifty days later the Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost, occurred when the wheat harvest began. The Feast of Tabernacles, or Ingathering, took place when the harvest was complete.
The growing of crops began with the preparation of the soil, usually in the middle of October. This was timed to take advantage of any early rain which softened the ground and made it easier to plough or dig. Sowing followed this preparation, which was, in time, followed by harrowing and weeding.
The harvesting of crops began with barley, toward the middle of April. The gathering of the other grains, and the harvest of summer fruits, including grapes, lasted through August and September, with the last of the olives picked in November.
Seed could either be sown by hand or using a seed drill. If sowing by hand the farmer walked along the furrows made by the hoe or plough, throwing handfuls of seed taken from a bag at his side. The furrows were then smoothed over by pulling branches over the ground to cover the seed, (Is. 28:24-5; Job 39:10). Using a seed drill required more than one person: one would direct the plough and push the handle down into the soil, while a second one would direct the animals. A third person would hold the seed bag and drop the seeds into the funnel which led down to the soil. Seeds would fall behind the plough-point, so were covered by the falling soil.
Harvesting was intense work, and itinerant workers were often hired to help. Harvesting began with cutting the standing grain with a scythe, tying the stalks into sheaves, and finally, transporting the harvested crops to the threshing area. The separation of the grain from the stalks was done on the hard, flat rock of the threshing floor in a process called winnowing. Threshing floors were placed so that the wind could help with the sorting. Winnowing involved throwing the sheaves into the air gently so that the heavy grain fell to the floor and the stalks, lighter and more likely to catch the wind, were ‘blown away’. After winnowing was completed, the farmer was left with several products: the grain itself and then two styles of straw – a thick straw use d for fire-starting (kindling) or binding into mud bricks, and a finer one used for animal feed. The finest dust was used as a packing material.
Religious law made sure that everyone benefitted from the growing of grain: a corner of the field could not be harvested by the landowner and had to be left for the poor (Leviticus 19:9, 23:22), who were also invited to collect any grain that the reapers (collectors) had missed.
Fatted Calf
Luke's account of the Lost Son (Lk 15) tells of the father's generosity in the giving of a fatted calf for the celebration. The words Luke uses translate more accurately as the 'grain fed' calf. In contrast to cattle left to feed on grass, grain fed cattle were destined for festivals and celebrations; their meat was considered particularly tender.
Luke's account of the Lost Son (Lk 15) tells of the father's generosity in the giving of a fatted calf for the celebration. The words Luke uses translate more accurately as the 'grain fed' calf. In contrast to cattle left to feed on grass, grain fed cattle were destined for festivals and celebrations; their meat was considered particularly tender.
Fishing
Like shepherding, the Bible takes fishing for granted. Both salt and fresh water fish were readily available; the coastal regions and the fresh water lake in Galilee provided an abundant supply. Jewish law taught that only fish with scales and fins were clean – kosher – to eat. While most fish was caught for food, fish bones were also used for jewellery.
Fishing on Lake Galilee would have been undertaken in a small wooden sailing boat. The boats used on Lake Galilee were approximately 8 metres long, 2.5 metres wide and about 1.2 metres deep – large enough for six men. They had just one sail.
Although some fishermen used a long fishing line with hooks attached to it, fishing was generally done with nets.
The sweepnet was a circular net with weights around the edge. It was generally used in deep water. The fisherman would throw the net from the boat so that it landed over the fish which were then trapped as the weights carried the net to the lake floor.
A dragnet was used in shallow waters or to fish from the shore. It was rectangular in shape with weights along one long side and floats on the other. One end would be held on shore while the other was put into the boat. The fishermen would then row out into the lake, letting out the net as they went. They would come back to shore some metres along from where they left, trapping the fish between the net and land. The fish would be dragged to shore in the net.
The Romans regulated the fishing industry by selling fishing rights. Some families bought and worked their own boats, others hired labourers to help them. Tax collectors or brokers also bought fishing rights and contracted local fishermen to work for them. Consequently some fishermen had little control over their livelihood and would often have to fish in unfavourable conditions or during storms cause by wind coming down from the hills to the north of the lake.
As well as being a popular occupation, fish and fishing were associated with Christian life: Jesus invited the first disciples to put away their fishing nets and instead to ‘catch people.’ Later, the early Christian community used the fish as a symbol for Christ, using the Greek letters of the words Jesus (I), Christ (Ch), God’s (Th), Son (Y), Saviour (S), to form an acrostic of the Greek word for ‘fish’: ICHTHYS.
Like shepherding, the Bible takes fishing for granted. Both salt and fresh water fish were readily available; the coastal regions and the fresh water lake in Galilee provided an abundant supply. Jewish law taught that only fish with scales and fins were clean – kosher – to eat. While most fish was caught for food, fish bones were also used for jewellery.
Fishing on Lake Galilee would have been undertaken in a small wooden sailing boat. The boats used on Lake Galilee were approximately 8 metres long, 2.5 metres wide and about 1.2 metres deep – large enough for six men. They had just one sail.
Although some fishermen used a long fishing line with hooks attached to it, fishing was generally done with nets.
The sweepnet was a circular net with weights around the edge. It was generally used in deep water. The fisherman would throw the net from the boat so that it landed over the fish which were then trapped as the weights carried the net to the lake floor.
A dragnet was used in shallow waters or to fish from the shore. It was rectangular in shape with weights along one long side and floats on the other. One end would be held on shore while the other was put into the boat. The fishermen would then row out into the lake, letting out the net as they went. They would come back to shore some metres along from where they left, trapping the fish between the net and land. The fish would be dragged to shore in the net.
The Romans regulated the fishing industry by selling fishing rights. Some families bought and worked their own boats, others hired labourers to help them. Tax collectors or brokers also bought fishing rights and contracted local fishermen to work for them. Consequently some fishermen had little control over their livelihood and would often have to fish in unfavourable conditions or during storms cause by wind coming down from the hills to the north of the lake.
As well as being a popular occupation, fish and fishing were associated with Christian life: Jesus invited the first disciples to put away their fishing nets and instead to ‘catch people.’ Later, the early Christian community used the fish as a symbol for Christ, using the Greek letters of the words Jesus (I), Christ (Ch), God’s (Th), Son (Y), Saviour (S), to form an acrostic of the Greek word for ‘fish’: ICHTHYS.